Fungi

Subtopic: Parasitic, Saprophytic, and Experimental Fungi

Keyword Definitions:

• Puccinia: A genus of parasitic fungi causing rust diseases in cereals, especially wheat.

• Neurospora: A filamentous fungus used in biochemical and genetic experiments; saprotrophic on dead substrates.

• Saprophytes: Organisms that obtain nutrients from dead or decaying organic matter.

• Albugo: Parasitic fungus infecting mustard and other cruciferous plants, causing white rust.

• Parasitic fungus: Fungus that derives nutrients from living host plants, often causing diseases.

• Dead substrates: Non-living organic matter on which saprophytic fungi grow.

• Wheat rust: Disease of wheat caused by Puccinia species, affecting yield and quality.

• Biochemical and Genetic Work: Experimental studies using fungi like Neurospora to understand molecular biology.

Lead Question – 2022 (Abroad)
Match List-I with List-II:
List-I:
(a) Puccinia
(b) Neurospora
(c) Saprophytes
(d) Albugo
List-II:
(i) Parasitic fungus on mustard
(ii) Dead substrates
(iii) Wheat rust
(iv) Biochemical and Genetic Work
Choose the correct answer from the options given below:
1. (a)–(iii), (b)–(ii), (c)–(iv), (d)–(i)
2. (a)–(iii), (b)–(iv), (c)–(ii), (d)–(i)
3. (a)–(i), (b)–(ii), (c)–(iii), (d)–(iv)
4. (a)–(iv), (b)–(ii), (c)–(i), (d)–(iii)

Explanation:
Correct answer is option 2. Puccinia is a parasitic fungus causing wheat rust, damaging crops significantly. Neurospora is saprotrophic on dead substrates and widely used in biochemical and genetic studies due to its simple genetics and ease of culture. Saprophytes obtain nutrients from dead organic matter. Albugo is a parasitic fungus infecting mustard and other cruciferous plants. This matching correctly associates fungi with their ecological roles and experimental importance, highlighting both parasitic and saprophytic adaptations, as well as the relevance of fungi like Neurospora in molecular biology research and plant pathology.

1. Which fungus is used extensively in genetic studies?
1. Puccinia
2. Neurospora
3. Albugo
4. Candida
Explanation: Correct answer is Neurospora. Neurospora is a model organism in biochemical and genetic work due to its haploid lifecycle, simple growth requirements, and ease of mutant isolation. Puccinia and Albugo are parasitic fungi affecting plants, while Candida is a yeast causing infections but not commonly used in genetic experiments.

2. Puccinia primarily causes disease in:
1. Mustard
2. Wheat
3. Rice
4. Maize
Explanation: Correct answer is wheat. Puccinia species are obligate parasites that infect cereal crops, causing rust diseases. Wheat rust significantly affects yield and grain quality. Other crops like mustard are affected by Albugo, while rice and maize have different rust pathogens.

3. Saprophytic fungi obtain nutrients from:
1. Living plants
2. Animal tissues
3. Dead organic matter
4. Soil minerals only
Explanation: Correct answer is dead organic matter. Saprophytes decompose and derive nutrients from non-living organic substrates, recycling nutrients into ecosystems. They contrast with parasitic fungi like Puccinia and Albugo, which require living hosts. Soil minerals alone are insufficient for saprophytes, which need organic carbon sources.

4. Albugo infects which type of plants?
1. Cereal crops
2. Cruciferous plants
3. Leguminous plants
4. Orchids
Explanation: Correct answer is cruciferous plants. Albugo species are obligate parasites causing white rust on mustard, cabbage, and other crucifers. They attack leaves and stems, forming pustules and reducing photosynthetic efficiency. Cereal crops are mainly affected by Puccinia, legumes by Rhizoctonia, and orchids by specific fungal pathogens.

5. Which fungal group is essential for biochemical and genetic research?
1. Parasitic fungi
2. Saprophytic fungi like Neurospora
3. Pathogenic fungi
4. Mycorrhizal fungi
Explanation: Correct answer is saprophytic fungi like Neurospora. Neurospora provides a simple, controllable system for genetic studies. Parasitic and pathogenic fungi are studied mainly for plant disease control, while mycorrhizal fungi are important for nutrient exchange with plants, not classical genetic research.

6. Which fungus is a parasite of mustard?
1. Puccinia
2. Neurospora
3. Albugo
4. Saccharomyces
Explanation: Correct answer is Albugo. Albugo species infect cruciferous plants such as mustard, causing white rust. Puccinia primarily affects cereals like wheat. Neurospora is saprophytic and used experimentally, while Saccharomyces is a yeast used in fermentation.

7. Assertion-Reason:
Assertion (A): Saprophytic fungi are crucial for nutrient cycling in ecosystems.
Reason (R): They decompose dead organic matter and release essential nutrients.
1. Both A and R are true, R is correct explanation of A
2. Both A and R are true, R is not correct explanation of A
3. A is true, R is false
4. A is false, R is true
Explanation: Correct answer is option 1. Saprophytic fungi break down complex organic compounds from dead substrates into simpler forms, releasing carbon, nitrogen, and minerals, thus maintaining ecosystem nutrient cycles. This process is essential for soil fertility and ecological balance.

8. Matching Type:
Match the fungus with its type:
A. Puccinia – (i) Parasitic
B. Neurospora – (ii) Saprophytic
C. Albugo – (iii) Parasitic
D. Saccharomyces – (iv) Saprophytic yeast
1. A–i, B–ii, C–iii, D–iv
2. A–iii, B–i, C–ii, D–iv
3. A–i, B–iv, C–ii, D–iii
4. A–ii, B–i, C–iii, D–iv
Explanation: Correct answer is option 1. Puccinia and Albugo are parasitic fungi; Neurospora is saprophytic on dead substrates; Saccharomyces is a saprophytic yeast used in fermentation. This correctly categorizes fungi based on ecological roles and applications.

9. Fill in the Blanks:
________ is used in classical genetic experiments due to simple lifecycle and haploid cells.
1. Puccinia
2. Neurospora
3. Albugo
4. Saccharomyces
Explanation: Correct answer is Neurospora. Its haploid stage allows easy identification of mutations, and it grows rapidly on dead substrates. Puccinia and Albugo are plant pathogens, Saccharomyces is used in fermentation, not classical genetic experiments.

10. Choose the correct statements:
Statement I: Puccinia affects wheat crops.
Statement II: Albugo affects mustard plants.
1. Both I and II are correct
2. Only I is correct
3. Only II is correct
4. Both I and II are incorrect
Explanation: Correct answer is option 1. Puccinia is the causal agent of wheat rust, while Albugo parasitizes cruciferous plants like mustard, causing white rust. Both statements correctly describe host-pathogen relationships, highlighting the agricultural importance of understanding fungal parasitism.

Subtopic: Basidiomycota and Ascomycota

• Sac-fungi: Fungi belonging to the phylum Ascomycota, characterized by producing spores in sac-like structures called asci.

• Puffballs: Fungi of Basidiomycota that release spores in a puff when mature; not sac-fungi.

• Mushrooms: Fruiting bodies of Basidiomycota, typically with a cap and gills where spores are produced.

• Bracket Fungi: Basidiomycetes forming shelf-like structures on trees; also called shelf fungi.

• Fungi: Eukaryotic organisms that absorb nutrients from organic matter, reproduce via spores, and lack chlorophyll.

• Ascomycota: Phylum of sac-fungi, including yeasts, morels, and truffles.

• Basidiomycota: Phylum of club fungi including mushrooms, puffballs, and bracket fungi.

• Spores: Reproductive units of fungi capable of developing into a new organism.

• Fruiting body: The reproductive structure of fungi that produces spores.

• Mycelium: Network of fungal hyphae forming the vegetative part of the fungus.

• Hyphae: Thread-like structures forming the main body of a fungus.

Lead Question - 2022 (Abroad)

Identify the fungi which do not belong to the group of other fungi among the following:

1. Sac-fungi

2. Puffballs

3. Mushrooms

4. Bracket Fungi

Explanation: Sac-fungi (Ascomycota) are distinct from the other listed fungi, which belong to Basidiomycota. Puffballs, mushrooms, and bracket fungi produce spores on basidia and share structural characteristics. Therefore, the odd one out is Sac-fungi. Answer: Sac-fungi. Answer: 1

Q1: Which phylum includes mushrooms?

1. Ascomycota

2. Basidiomycota

3. Chytridiomycota

4. Glomeromycota

Explanation: Mushrooms belong to Basidiomycota, characterized by producing spores on club-shaped structures called basidia. Ascomycota are sac-fungi, Chytridiomycota are primitive fungi with flagellated spores, and Glomeromycota form symbiotic relationships with plant roots. Answer: Basidiomycota. Answer: 2

Q2: Puffballs release spores in which manner?

1. Through asci

2. By puffing out from a sac

3. Via budding

4. Through flagella

Explanation: Puffballs release spores in a puff when mature, using mechanical pressure. They are Basidiomycota, unlike Ascomycota which use asci. Budding and flagella are unrelated to spore dispersal in puffballs. Answer: By puffing out from a sac. Answer: 2

Q3: Which fungi form shelf-like structures on trees?

1. Bracket Fungi

2. Yeasts

3. Puffballs

4. Sac-fungi

Explanation: Bracket fungi, or shelf fungi, grow on trees forming firm, shelf-like fruiting bodies. Yeasts are unicellular, puffballs form globular fruiting bodies, and sac-fungi include Ascomycota. Answer: Bracket Fungi. Answer: 1

Q4: Which fungi produce spores inside a sac called ascus?

1. Basidiomycota

2. Ascomycota

3. Chytridiomycota

4. Glomeromycota

Explanation: Ascomycota, the sac-fungi, produce sexual spores inside specialized sac-like structures called asci. Basidiomycota produce spores on basidia, Chytridiomycota have motile spores, and Glomeromycota form arbuscular mycorrhizae. Answer: Ascomycota. Answer: 2

Q5: Which fungal structure forms the main vegetative body?

1. Fruiting body

2. Spore

3. Mycelium

4. Basidium

Explanation: Mycelium is the network of hyphae forming the vegetative body of a fungus. Fruiting bodies are reproductive, spores are reproductive units, and basidia are spore-producing structures in Basidiomycota. Answer: Mycelium. Answer: 3

Q6: Which fungal group is used in bread and alcohol production?

1. Basidiomycota

2. Ascomycota

3. Chytridiomycota

4. Glomeromycota

Explanation: Yeasts, belonging to Ascomycota (sac-fungi), are used in bread and alcohol production because they ferment sugars efficiently. Basidiomycota include mushrooms, Chytridiomycota are aquatic, and Glomeromycota form symbiotic root associations. Answer: Ascomycota. Answer: 2

Q7: Assertion (A): Mushrooms, puffballs, and bracket fungi belong to the same phylum.
Reason (R): They produce spores on basidia.

1. A is correct but R is not correct

2. A is not correct but R is correct

3. Both A and R are correct and R explains A

4. Both A and R are correct but R does not explain A

Explanation: Mushrooms, puffballs, and bracket fungi are all Basidiomycota, and they produce spores on basidia. This characteristic unites them in the same phylum. Therefore, reason correctly explains the assertion. Answer: Both A and R are correct and R explains A. Answer: 3

Q8: Match fungi with phylum:

1. Sac-fungi    A. Basidiomycota
2. Mushroom    B. Ascomycota
3. Bracket Fungi    C. Basidiomycota
4. Puffballs    D. Basidiomycota

1. 1-B, 2-A, 3-C, 4-D

2. 1-A, 2-B, 3-C, 4-D

3. 1-B, 2-C, 3-D, 4-A

4. 1-C, 2-D, 3-B, 4-A

Explanation: Sac-fungi belong to Ascomycota. Mushrooms, bracket fungi, and puffballs belong to Basidiomycota. Therefore, the correct match is 1-B, 2-A, 3-C, 4-D. Answer: 1

Q9: Fruiting bodies of Basidiomycota produce spores on ______.

1. Asci

2. Basidia

3. Hyphae

4. Mycelium

Explanation: Basidiomycota produce spores on specialized club-shaped structures called basidia. Asci are found in Ascomycota, while hyphae and mycelium are vegetative structures. Answer: Basidia. Answer: 2

Q10: Select correct statements:

1. Sac-fungi produce spores in asci

2. Mushrooms belong to Basidiomycota

3. Puffballs release spores mechanically

4. Bracket fungi grow as shelf-like structures on trees

Explanation: All statements are correct: sac-fungi produce spores in asci; mushrooms are Basidiomycota; puffballs release spores by puffing; bracket fungi form shelf-like structures. Each reflects key features of these fungal groups. Answer: 1,2,3,4

Subtopic: Asexual Reproduction in Fungi

Keyword Definitions:
• Penicillium: A genus of filamentous fungi widely used for antibiotic production and food industry.
• Asexual Reproduction: Reproduction without fusion of gametes, producing genetically identical offspring.
• Conidia: Non-motile asexual spores formed at the tip of hyphae.
• Hyphae: Filamentous structures forming the mycelium of fungi.
• Gemmules: Asexual reproductive bodies in some sponges, not fungi.
• Budding: A type of asexual reproduction in yeasts forming small outgrowths.
• Zoospores: Motile asexual spores found in algae and chytrids.
• Mycelium: Mass of hyphae forming the vegetative body of a fungus.
• Sporangium: Structure in some fungi that produces spores.
• Spores: Reproductive units capable of developing into a new organism.

Lead Question (2022):
Identify the asexual reproductive structure associated with Penicillium:
1. Conidia
2. Gemmules
3. Buds
4. Zoospores

Explanation: The correct answer is 1. Conidia are non-motile asexual spores formed at the tips of specialized hyphae in Penicillium. These spores disperse to form new mycelia. Buds occur in yeasts, gemmules in sponges, and zoospores are motile spores in algae, not in Penicillium.

Guessed MCQs:

1. Which structure forms the vegetative body of Penicillium?
Options:
(a) Hyphae
(b) Mycelium
(c) Conidia
(d) Sporangium
Explanation: The correct answer is (b) Mycelium. The mycelium is a mass of hyphae that forms the vegetative body of Penicillium, supporting growth and reproduction. Hyphae are individual filaments, conidia are asexual spores, and sporangium is not present in Penicillium.

2. Single Correct Answer:
Which type of spores does Rhizopus produce asexually?
Options:
(a) Sporangiospores
(b) Conidia
(c) Zoospores
(d) Buds
Explanation: The correct answer is (a) Sporangiospores. Rhizopus produces sporangiospores inside a sporangium. Conidia are characteristic of Penicillium, zoospores are motile spores in algae, and buds are found in yeasts.

3. Assertion-Reason MCQ:
Assertion (A): Penicillium reproduces asexually by conidia.
Reason (R): Conidia are motile spores dispersed by water.
Options:
(a) Both A and R are true, R explains A
(b) Both A and R are true, R does not explain A
(c) A is true, R is false
(d) A is false, R is true
Explanation: The correct answer is (c). Penicillium reproduces asexually by conidia, which are non-motile spores dispersed by air currents, not water. Therefore, the assertion is true but the reason is false.

4. Matching Type MCQ:
Match the fungus with its asexual reproductive structure:
List - I List - II
(a) Penicillium (i) Conidia
(b) Saccharomyces (ii) Buds
(c) Chytrids (iii) Zoospores
Options:
1. a-i, b-ii, c-iii
2. a-ii, b-i, c-iii
3. a-iii, b-i, c-ii
4. a-i, b-iii, c-ii
Explanation: The correct answer is 1. Penicillium forms conidia, Saccharomyces reproduces by budding, and chytrids produce motile zoospores. Each asexual reproductive structure is characteristic to the respective organism.

5. Which part of the hypha produces conidia in Penicillium?
Options:
(a) Conidiophore
(b) Sporangium
(c) Mycelium
(d) Zoosporangium
Explanation: The correct answer is (a) Conidiophore. Conidiophores are specialized hyphal stalks that bear conidia at their tips. Sporangium is absent in Penicillium, mycelium forms the vegetative body, and zoosporangium produces motile spores in other fungi.

6. Single Correct Answer:
Which statement about conidia is correct?
Options:
(a) Non-motile spores
(b) Produced inside sporangium
(c) Found in algae only
(d) Formed by budding
Explanation: The correct answer is (a) Non-motile spores. Conidia are asexual spores that do not move independently and are dispersed by air. They are produced externally on conidiophores, not inside a sporangium, and are characteristic of certain fungi, not algae or yeasts.

7. Fill in the Blanks:
The specialized stalk of Penicillium that bears asexual spores is called __________.
Options:
(a) Conidiophore
(b) Hypha
(c) Sporangium
(d) Bud
Explanation: The correct answer is (a) Conidiophore. Conidiophores are the hyphal structures that elevate and support conidia for dispersal. Hyphae form the mycelium, sporangium produces sporangiospores, and buds occur in yeasts.

8. Which factor primarily aids in dispersal of conidia?
Options:
(a) Air currents
(b) Water currents
(c) Animal movement
(d) Budding
Explanation: The correct answer is (a) Air currents. Conidia are non-motile and rely on wind for dispersal to new substrates. Water currents may disperse zoospores, animal movement may aid in other fungi, and budding is a reproduction method, not dispersal.

9. Single Correct Answer:
Which type of fungi produces motile zoospores instead of conidia?
Options:
(a) Chytrids
(b) Penicillium
(c) Saccharomyces
(d) Aspergillus
Explanation: The correct answer is (a) Chytrids. Chytrids produce motile zoospores with flagella. Penicillium and Aspergillus produce conidia, while Saccharomyces reproduces by budding.

10. Choose the correct statements:
(i) Penicillium reproduces asexually by conidia
(ii) Conidia are motile spores
(iii) Conidiophores bear conidia
(iv) Buds are seen in yeasts
Options:
(a) i, iii, iv
(b) i, ii, iii
(c) ii, iii, iv
(d) i, ii, iv
Explanation: The correct answer is (a) i, iii, iv. Penicillium produces asexual conidia borne on conidiophores. Buds are asexual structures seen in yeasts. Conidia are non-motile spores, so statement ii is incorrect.

Subtopic: Symbiosis and Nutritional Modes

• Saprophyte: Organism obtaining nutrients from dead organic matter.

• Parasite: Organism living on or in another organism, causing harm.

• Lichens: Symbiotic association of algae and fungi.

• Mycorrhiza: Symbiotic association of fungi with plant roots.

• Symbiosis: Close and long-term biological interaction between two species.

• Decomposition: Breakdown of organic materials into simpler substances.

• Algae: Photosynthetic organisms, often part of lichens.

• Fungi: Eukaryotic organisms, heterotrophic, reproducing via spores.

• Nutrition: Process of obtaining and using food.

• Host: Organism supporting a parasite or symbiont.

• Association: Interaction between different organisms for mutual or unilateral benefit.

Lead Question (2019): Match Column -I with Column -II
Column -I Column-II
(a) Saprophyte (i) Symbiotic association of fungi with plant roots
(b) Parasite (ii) Decomposition of dead organic materials
(c) Lichens (iii) Living on living plants or animals
(d) Mycorrhiza (iv) Symbiotic association of algae and fungi
Choose the correct answer from the options given below:

Options:
1. a - i, b - ii, c - iii, d - iv
2. a - iii, b - ii, c - i, d - iv
3. a - ii, b - iii, c - iv, d - i
4. a - ii, b - iii, c - iv, d - i

Explanation: Correct answer is 4. Saprophytes obtain nutrients by decomposition of dead organic materials. Parasites live on living plants or animals. Lichens are symbiotic associations of algae and fungi. Mycorrhiza is a symbiotic association of fungi with plant roots. Each relationship defines a distinct ecological interaction and nutritional mode.

1. Single Correct Answer MCQ:
Which of the following fungi are obligate parasites?
Options:
a. Saccharomyces
b. Puccinia
c. Rhizopus
d. Penicillium

Explanation: Correct answer is b. Puccinia is an obligate parasite causing rust diseases. Saccharomyces is saprophytic, Rhizopus is mostly saprophytic, and Penicillium decomposes organic matter. Obligate parasites depend entirely on their host for nutrition, establishing a harmful relationship that distinguishes them from saprophytes and facultative parasites.

2. Single Correct Answer MCQ:
Which type of fungi forms mutualistic association with plant roots?
Options:
a. Lichens
b. Mycorrhiza
c. Saccharomyces
d. Candida

Explanation: Correct answer is b. Mycorrhiza forms mutualistic associations with plant roots, enhancing nutrient and water absorption. Lichens involve algae and fungi, Saccharomyces is saprophytic, and Candida is parasitic. This symbiosis benefits both partners, improving soil health and plant growth, crucial for ecosystem stability and agriculture.

3. Single Correct Answer MCQ:
Which component of lichens is photosynthetic?
Options:
a. Fungal hyphae
b. Algae
c. Bacteria
d. Mycorrhiza

Explanation: Correct answer is b. Algae in lichens perform photosynthesis, providing organic food. Fungal hyphae offer protection and moisture retention. Bacteria are not part of typical lichens, and mycorrhiza relates to roots. The association ensures survival in harsh conditions, demonstrating a stable mutualistic relationship between two distinct organisms.

4. Single Correct Answer MCQ:
Saprophytic fungi primarily obtain nutrients from:
Options:
a. Living hosts
b. Dead organic matter
c. Soil minerals directly
d. Photosynthesis

Explanation: Correct answer is b. Saprophytic fungi secrete enzymes that decompose dead organic matter, absorbing soluble nutrients. They do not rely on living hosts or photosynthesis. This mode of nutrition recycles organic matter, maintaining ecological balance and providing essential nutrients for other organisms in food webs and soil fertility.

5. Single Correct Answer MCQ:
Which fungus is used in antibiotic production?
Options:
a. Penicillium
b. Puccinia
c. Rhizopus
d. Saccharomyces

Explanation: Correct answer is a. Penicillium produces penicillin, an antibiotic effective against bacterial infections. Puccinia is a parasitic rust fungus, Rhizopus is saprophytic, and Saccharomyces is used in fermentation. Penicillium's ability to synthesize bioactive compounds highlights its medical and industrial importance in biotechnology and pharmaceutical applications.

6. Single Correct Answer MCQ:
Which fungus is unicellular and used in fermentation?
Options:
a. Saccharomyces
b. Rhizopus
c. Puccinia
d. Aspergillus

Explanation: Correct answer is a. Saccharomyces is a unicellular yeast used in baking, brewing, and fermentation industries. Rhizopus is filamentous, Puccinia is parasitic, and Aspergillus is multicellular. Its fermentative abilities convert sugars into alcohol or CO2, making it essential for food production and industrial biotechnology.

7. Assertion-Reason MCQ:
Assertion (A): Lichens can survive in extreme environments.
Reason (R): Lichens have a symbiotic association of algae and fungi.
Options:
a. Both A and R are true, R explains A
b. Both A and R are true, R does not explain A
c. A is true, R is false
d. A is false, R is true

Explanation: Correct answer is a. Lichens survive extreme environments due to the mutualistic relationship between algae and fungi. Algae perform photosynthesis, providing food, while fungi retain moisture and protection. This symbiosis allows growth on rocks, deserts, and cold regions, demonstrating survival adaptations not possible for algae or fungi alone.

8. Matching Type MCQ:
Match the fungal type with its example:
Column-I Column-II
(a) Yeast (i) Puccinia
(b) Mould (ii) Saccharomyces
(c) Parasitic (iii) Rhizopus
(d) Symbiotic (iv) Lichens
Options:
1. a-ii, b-iii, c-i, d-iv
2. a-iii, b-ii, c-iv, d-i
3. a-ii, b-i, c-iii, d-iv
4. a-i, b-ii, c-iii, d-iv

Explanation: Correct answer is 1. Yeast corresponds to Saccharomyces, mould to Rhizopus, parasitic fungi to Puccinia, and symbiotic fungi to lichens. Each type has distinct structural and nutritional characteristics. Yeast is unicellular, moulds are filamentous saprophytes, parasitic fungi depend on hosts, and symbiotic fungi involve mutualistic partnerships.

9. Fill in the Blanks / Completion MCQ:
________ fungi live on dead organic matter and play a key role in decomposition.
Options:
a. Parasitic
b. Saprophytic
c. Symbiotic
d. Mutualistic

Explanation: Correct answer is b. Saprophytic fungi live on dead organic matter, secreting enzymes to decompose complex substances into simpler molecules. This process recycles nutrients in ecosystems. Parasitic fungi harm hosts, while symbiotic or mutualistic fungi live with partners, demonstrating diverse fungal ecological roles crucial for soil fertility and ecosystem functioning.

10. Choose the correct statements MCQ:
Select the correct statements:
i. Mycorrhizal fungi improve plant nutrient uptake
ii. Saprophytic fungi are harmful to plants
iii. Lichens can survive in harsh conditions
iv. Puccinia is a symbiotic fungus
Options:
a. i and iii
b. ii and iv
c. i and iv
d. ii and iii

Explanation: Correct answer is a. Mycorrhizal fungi enhance plant nutrient absorption, and lichens tolerate extreme conditions due to symbiosis. Saprophytic fungi decompose dead matter and are not harmful, while Puccinia is parasitic, not symbiotic. These statements distinguish ecological roles, survival strategies, and beneficial versus harmful fungal interactions.

Subtopic: Mycorrhizal Association

Keyword Definitions:

• Pinus: A genus of gymnosperms commonly known as pine trees.

• Germination: Process by which a seed develops into a new plant.

• Mycorrhizae: Symbiotic association between a fungus and plant roots, aiding nutrient absorption.

• Embryo: Young developing plant inside a seed.

• Obligate Association: Dependency of one organism on another for survival or development.

• Seed Coat: Protective outer layer of a seed.

Lead Question (2019):

Pinus seed cannot germinate and establish without fungal association. This is because:
(1) its embryo is immature.
(2) it has obligate association with mycorrhizae.
(3) it has very hard seed coat.
(4) its seeds contain inhibitors that prevent germination

Explanation: Correct answer is (2) it has obligate association with mycorrhizae. Pinus seeds depend on symbiotic fungi for mineral and water absorption due to their tiny embryos and nutrient-poor reserves. This mutualistic association allows successful germination and seedling establishment in natural habitats.

1) Single Correct Answer MCQ:
Mycorrhizal fungi help plants primarily by:
(1) Fixing nitrogen
(2) Enhancing mineral absorption
(3) Producing chlorophyll
(4) Pollinating flowers

Explanation: Correct answer is (2). Mycorrhizal fungi extend root surface area, improving uptake of minerals and water. This symbiotic interaction is critical for plant nutrition, especially in nutrient-poor soils.

2) Single Correct Answer MCQ:
Seeds of Pinus are classified as:
(1) Orthodox
(2) Recalcitrant
(3) Viviparous
(4) Fleshy

Explanation: Correct answer is (1). Pinus seeds are orthodox, tolerating desiccation but require fungal association for germination. Their small endosperm necessitates external support for seedling establishment.

3) Single Correct Answer MCQ:
Why Pinus embryo is unable to germinate independently?
(1) Immature embryo
(2) Requires fungal nutrients
(3) Thick seed coat
(4) Chemical inhibitors

Explanation: Correct answer is (2). The embryo depends on mycorrhizal fungi for nutrient supply. Seeds alone have limited reserves, making symbiosis essential for germination and early seedling growth.

4) Single Correct Answer MCQ:
Obligate mycorrhizae mean:
(1) Plants can survive without fungi
(2) Fungi are essential for plant survival
(3) Fungi are parasitic
(4) Plant produces own nutrients

Explanation: Correct answer is (2). Obligate mycorrhizae are necessary for plant development. Pinus seedlings cannot establish without fungal partners providing critical nutrients from soil.

5) Single Correct Answer MCQ:
Which part of the Pinus seed is tiny and limits nutrient reserve?
(1) Endosperm
(2) Seed coat
(3) Embryo
(4) Cotyledon

Explanation: Correct answer is (1). Pinus seeds have minimal endosperm; mycorrhizal fungi supply additional nutrients, compensating for the limited reserves and supporting germination.

6) Single Correct Answer MCQ:
Pinus seeds germinate naturally under which condition?
(1) Presence of fungi
(2) Complete darkness
(3) High humidity only
(4) Scarified seed coat

Explanation: Correct answer is (1). Fungal association is vital for germination because it provides essential nutrients and water uptake for tiny embryos, ensuring proper seedling growth in natural habitats.

7) Assertion-Reason MCQ:
Assertion (A): Pinus seeds need mycorrhizal fungi for germination.
Reason (R): Their embryos are nutrient-deficient.
Options:
(1) A true, R true, R correct explanation
(2) A true, R true, R not correct explanation
(3) A true, R false
(4) A false, R true

Explanation: Correct answer is (1). The tiny, nutrient-poor embryos rely on obligate mycorrhizal fungi for water and mineral supply, enabling germination and seedling establishment.

8) Matching Type MCQ:
Match plant with germination requirement:
(a) Pinus - (i) Fungal association
(b) Zea mays - (ii) Self-sufficient
(c) Orchid - (iii) Symbiotic fungi
Options:
(1) a-i, b-ii, c-iii
(2) a-ii, b-i, c-iii
(3) a-i, b-iii, c-ii
(4) a-iii, b-ii, c-i

Explanation: Correct answer is (1). Pinus requires fungi, Zea mays is self-sufficient, and orchids rely on symbiotic fungi for germination. Early seedling survival depends on these associations.

9) Fill in the Blanks MCQ:
Pinus seed embryo is ________ and needs fungi to germinate.
(1) Immature
(2) Tiny and nutrient-poor
(3) Fully mature
(4) Dormant only

Explanation: Correct answer is (2). The embryo is tiny and nutrient-deficient; fungal association supplies minerals and water essential for germination and seedling establishment.

10) Choose the correct statements MCQ:
(1) Pinus seeds require mycorrhizae
(2) Seed coat is thin and permeable
(3) Embryos have sufficient reserves
(4) Germination fails without fungi
Options:
(1) 1 and 4
(2) 1, 2, 4
(3) 2 and 3
(4) All of the above

Explanation: Correct answer is (1) 1 and 4. Pinus seeds are dependent on mycorrhizal fungi for successful germination due to nutrient-poor embryos and limited reserves. Seedlings fail to establish without this symbiotic association.

Subtopic: Economic Importance of Fungi

Keyword Definitions:

• Morels and Truffles: Edible fungi considered delicacies in culinary uses.

• Claviceps: Genus of fungi producing alkaloids, including LSD precursors.

• Conidia: Asexual spores produced externally by fungi for reproduction.

• Ascospores: Sexual spores produced inside an ascus in Ascomycota fungi.

• Yeast: Unicellular fungi, generally non-filamentous, used in fermentation and baking.

Lead Question (September 2019):

Which of the following statements is incorrect?
(1) Morels and truffles are edible delicacies
(2) Claviceps is a source of many alkaloids and LSD
(3) Conidia are produced exogenously and ascospores endogenously
(4) Yeasts have filamentous bodies with long thread-like hyphae

Explanation: The correct answer is (4). Yeasts are generally unicellular and do not form long filamentous hyphae, unlike molds. The other statements are correct: Morels and truffles are edible, Claviceps produces alkaloids, and conidia/asci produce asexual and sexual spores respectively. This distinction is crucial in NEET UG mycology questions.

1) Saccharomyces cerevisiae is commonly used for:
(1) Fermentation
(2) Antibiotic production
(3) Mushroom cultivation
(4) LSD synthesis

Explanation: The correct answer is (1) Fermentation. Saccharomyces cerevisiae is a unicellular yeast used to ferment sugars into alcohol and carbon dioxide for baking and brewing. NEET UG frequently tests yeast applications in biotechnology and food industries, emphasizing practical importance and cellular morphology.

2) Ascomycota reproduce sexually by forming:
(1) Basidiospores
(2) Ascospores
(3) Zygospores
(4) Conidia

Explanation: The correct answer is (2) Ascospores. Ascomycota produce sexual spores called ascospores inside sac-like structures called asci. Asexual reproduction occurs via conidia. Understanding fungal reproductive structures is essential for NEET UG mycology questions.

3) Claviceps purpurea infects which crop to produce alkaloids?
(1) Wheat
(2) Barley
(3) Rye
(4) Rice

Explanation: The correct answer is (3) Rye. Claviceps purpurea infects rye grains producing ergot alkaloids, including LSD precursors. Knowledge of fungal secondary metabolites and host specificity is commonly tested in NEET UG applied mycology questions.

4) Conidia are:
(1) Sexual spores
(2) Asexual spores
(3) Fungal hyphae
(4) Nutrient storage bodies

Explanation: The correct answer is (2) Asexual spores. Conidia are produced exogenously by hyphae to disperse and reproduce rapidly. Understanding types of spores, their origin, and function is frequently tested in NEET UG fungal reproduction questions.

5) Edible fungi include:
(1) Morels
(2) Truffles
(3) Agaricus
(4) All of the above

Explanation: The correct answer is (4) All of the above. Morels, truffles, and Agaricus mushrooms are edible fungi widely used as delicacies. NEET UG questions often include economic importance of fungi, including culinary and industrial applications.

6) Yeast differs from mold because:
(1) It is unicellular
(2) Produces conidia
(3) Forms mycelium
(4) Produces mushrooms

Explanation: The correct answer is (1) It is unicellular. Yeasts are single-celled, while molds form multicellular filamentous hyphae. This difference is fundamental in NEET UG fungal classification and biotechnology questions.

7) Assertion-Reason Type:
Assertion (A): Morels and truffles are valued in cuisine.
Reason (R): They produce large amounts of alkaloids harmful to humans.
(1) A true, R true, R correct explanation
(2) A true, R true, R not explanation
(3) A true, R false
(4) A false, R true

Explanation: The correct answer is (3). Morels and truffles are edible delicacies and safe for consumption. They do not produce harmful alkaloids. Assertion is correct; reason is false. NEET UG tests understanding of fungal edibility and bioactive compounds.

8) Matching Type:
Match fungus with characteristic:
(a) Claviceps - (i) Alkaloid production
(b) Saccharomyces - (ii) Fermentation
(c) Agaricus - (iii) Edible mushroom
Options:
(1) a-i, b-ii, c-iii
(2) a-ii, b-i, c-iii
(3) a-iii, b-ii, c-i
(4) a-i, b-iii, c-ii

Explanation: The correct answer is (1). Claviceps produces alkaloids, Saccharomyces is used in fermentation, and Agaricus is an edible mushroom. Matching fungal examples with characteristics is a common NEET UG question to test practical knowledge of fungi.

9) Fill in the Blanks:
Yeasts are unicellular fungi used in ______.
(1) Fermentation
(2) Antibiotic production
(3) Mushroom cultivation
(4) LSD synthesis

Explanation: The correct answer is (1) Fermentation. Yeasts like Saccharomyces cerevisiae convert sugars into alcohol and CO₂ in baking and brewing. Their unicellular nature distinguishes them from filamentous molds. NEET UG often tests yeast applications in food biotechnology.

10) Choose the correct statements:
(1) Conidia are asexual spores
(2) Ascospores are sexual spores
(3) Yeasts form long filamentous hyphae
(4) Morels and truffles are edible
Options:
(1) 1 and 2
(2) 1, 2, and 4
(3) 2 and 3
(4) Only 3

Explanation: The correct answer is (2) 1, 2, and 4. Conidia are asexual spores, ascospores are sexual spores, and morels/truffles are edible. Statement (3) is incorrect; yeasts are unicellular. NEET UG tests knowledge of fungal reproduction, morphology, and economic importance.

Topic: Sexual Reproduction in Fungi

Subtopic: Karyogamy and Spore Formation

Keyword Definitions:

• Karyogamy: Fusion of two haploid nuclei to form a diploid nucleus.

• Meiosis: Reductional division restoring haploid condition after karyogamy.

• Exogenous spores: Spores formed externally on special structures.

• Basidiospores: Sexual spores produced externally on basidia.

• Ascospore: Spore produced internally in an ascus.

Lead Question - 2018

After karyogamy followed by meiosis, spores are produced exogenously in

(A) Saccharomyces

(B) Neurospora

(C) Agaricus

(D) Alternaria

Explanation: In Agaricus, a basidiomycete, karyogamy occurs in basidia followed by meiosis. This results in the external production of basidiospores on sterigmata. Saccharomyces and Neurospora form endogenous ascospores, while Alternaria reproduces asexually. Hence, the correct answer is Agaricus.

Guessed Questions for NEET UG

1) In basidiomycetes, basidiospores are formed

(A) Endogenously inside basidium

(B) Exogenously on basidium

(C) In ascus

(D) In sporangium

Explanation: Basidiospores are exogenously formed on basidia. Each basidium typically bears four sterigmata, each producing one spore externally. Ascospore formation occurs inside an ascus, while sporangiospores are formed in sporangia. Correct answer is exogenously on basidium.

2) Which of the following fungi is an example of ascomycete?

(A) Neurospora

(B) Agaricus

(C) Puccinia

(D) Ustilago

Explanation: Neurospora belongs to the class Ascomycota, producing ascospores inside asci. Agaricus belongs to Basidiomycota, Puccinia and Ustilago are also basidiomycetes. Thus, the correct answer is Neurospora, an important genetic model organism in research.

3) Clinical case: A farmer developed allergic bronchitis after exposure to spores of a common basidiomycete. Identify the likely fungus.

(A) Agaricus

(B) Alternaria

(C) Ustilago

(D) Rust fungus

Explanation: Mushroom spores (Agaricus) are basidiospores produced externally and can cause respiratory allergies upon inhalation in sensitive individuals. Alternaria is a deuteromycete, Ustilago causes smut disease, rust fungi infect cereals. Hence, the answer is Agaricus.

4) Assertion (A): In Agaricus, spores are formed after meiosis.

Reason (R): Meiosis ensures haploid spores for continuation of sexual cycle.

(A) Both A and R true, R correct explanation

(B) Both A and R true, R not correct explanation

(C) A true, R false

(D) A false, R true

Explanation: In Agaricus, diploid zygote undergoes meiosis in basidium, producing haploid spores. This maintains the haploid-diploid balance in fungal life cycle. Both A and R are true, and R correctly explains A. Correct option is (A).

5) Match the following:

Column I – (a) Agaricus, (b) Saccharomyces, (c) Neurospora, (d) Alternaria

Column II – (i) Basidiospores, (ii) Ascospores, (iii) Asexual conidia, (iv) Budding yeast

Options:

(A) a-i, b-iv, c-ii, d-iii

(B) a-ii, b-i, c-iii, d-iv

(C) a-iii, b-ii, c-i, d-iv

(D) a-iv, b-iii, c-ii, d-i

Explanation: Agaricus produces basidiospores, Saccharomyces reproduces by budding, Neurospora forms ascospores, and Alternaria reproduces by asexual conidia. Thus, correct matching is option (A).

6) In Saccharomyces, sexual reproduction results in

(A) Basidiospores

(B) Ascospores

(C) Conidia

(D) Zoospores

Explanation: Saccharomyces, a unicellular ascomycete, undergoes sexual reproduction to form ascospores inside asci. Basidiospores occur in basidiomycetes, conidia are asexual spores, and zoospores occur in algae and lower fungi. Correct answer is ascospores.

7) Fill in the Blank:

The sexual spores of basidiomycetes are called __________.

(A) Zoospores

(B) Conidia

(C) Ascospores

(D) Basidiospores

Explanation: Basidiomycetes produce basidiospores exogenously on basidia following karyogamy and meiosis. Ascospores occur in ascomycetes, zoospores are motile spores, and conidia are asexual spores. Correct answer is basidiospores.

8) Choose the correct statements:

i) Agaricus produces basidiospores externally.

ii) Alternaria reproduces mainly by conidia.

iii) Neurospora is an ascomycete producing ascospores.

iv) Saccharomyces never reproduces sexually.

(A) i, ii, iii correct

(B) i, ii, iv correct

(C) i, iii, iv correct

(D) All correct

Explanation: Agaricus forms basidiospores, Alternaria produces conidia, Neurospora produces ascospores. Saccharomyces does reproduce sexually, so statement iv is false. Correct option is (A).

9) Which spore is NOT a sexual spore?

(A) Ascospore

(B) Conidium

(C) Basidiospore

(D) Oospore

Explanation: Conidia are asexual spores formed directly from hyphae, while ascospores, basidiospores, and oospores are sexual spores. Therefore, the correct answer is conidium.

10) In Agaricus, each basidium typically produces how many basidiospores?

(A) Two

(B) Four

(C) Eight

(D) Sixteen

Explanation: A typical basidium in Agaricus undergoes meiosis to form four haploid nuclei, each giving rise to one basidiospore on sterigmata. Thus, the correct answer is four.

Topic: Symbiotic Relationships

Subtopic: Mycorrhizal Associations

Keyword Definitions:

• Mycorrhizae – Symbiotic association between fungi and plant roots.

• Mutualism – Interaction where both partners benefit.

• Fungistasis – Inhibition of fungal growth.

• Amensalism – One organism is inhibited or destroyed, other unaffected.

• Antibiosis – Production of substances harmful to other organisms.

• Symbiosis – Close and long-term interaction between species.

• Hyphae – Filamentous structures of fungi.

• Phosphorus Uptake – Nutrient absorption enhanced by mycorrhizae.

• Host Plant – Plant that provides nutrients to fungus.

• Arbuscular Mycorrhiza – Fungal type penetrating plant root cells.

• Ectomycorrhiza – Fungal type surrounding root without penetrating cells.

Lead Question – 2017:

Mycorrhizae are the example of:

(A) Mutualism

(B) Fungistasis

(C) Amensalism

(D) Antibiosis

Explanation:

Correct answer is A (Mutualism). Mycorrhizae represent a mutualistic relationship in which fungi obtain carbohydrates from the host plant, while the plant benefits from enhanced water and nutrient absorption, particularly phosphorus. This mutually beneficial interaction supports plant growth and fungal survival. (Answer: A)

1) Single Correct Answer MCQ:

Which type of mycorrhiza penetrates root cortical cells?

(A) Ectomycorrhiza

(B) Arbuscular mycorrhiza

(C) Ericoid mycorrhiza

(D) Orchid mycorrhiza

Explanation:

Arbuscular mycorrhiza penetrate cortical cells of roots, forming arbuscules that facilitate nutrient exchange between plant and fungus. Ectomycorrhiza surrounds roots without penetration. (Answer: B)

2) Single Correct Answer MCQ:

Primary benefit of mycorrhizal association for plants is:

(A) Protection from herbivores

(B) Enhanced nutrient absorption

(C) Seed dispersal

(D) Water loss

Explanation:

Plants associated with mycorrhizae gain enhanced nutrient absorption, especially phosphorus and nitrogen, improving growth and stress resistance, while fungi receive carbohydrates from the host plant. (Answer: B)

3) Single Correct Answer MCQ:

Ectomycorrhizae typically form a sheath around:

(A) Leaves

(B) Roots

(C) Stem

(D) Flowers

Explanation:

Ectomycorrhizae form a sheath around plant roots without entering cells, facilitating nutrient exchange and improving water absorption. They are common in forest trees. (Answer: B)

4) Single Correct Answer MCQ:

Which nutrient is most efficiently absorbed with mycorrhizal assistance?

(A) Calcium

(B) Phosphorus

(C) Potassium

(D) Iron

Explanation:

Mycorrhizal fungi enhance phosphorus uptake, as their hyphal network extends soil contact, improving plant nutrition and growth while gaining carbohydrates from the host. (Answer: B)

5) Single Correct Answer MCQ:

Orchid mycorrhizae are essential for:

(A) Leaf photosynthesis

(B) Seed germination

(C) Flowering

(D) Root branching

Explanation:

Orchid seeds are tiny and lack endosperm; orchid mycorrhizae supply nutrients essential for germination and early seedling development, illustrating a crucial mutualistic relationship. (Answer: B)

6) Single Correct Answer MCQ:

Fungal hyphae in mycorrhizae increase:

(A) Leaf area

(B) Soil contact area

(C) Stem thickness

(D) Seed size

Explanation:

Hyphal networks in mycorrhizae expand the root's soil contact area, allowing greater absorption of water and nutrients, providing a survival advantage to plants and carbohydrates to fungi. (Answer: B)

7) Assertion-Reason MCQ:

Assertion (A): Mycorrhizae enhance plant phosphorus uptake.

Reason (R): Fungi supply nitrogen directly from air.

(A) Both A and R true, R explains A

(B) Both A and R true, R does not explain A

(C) A true, R false

(D) A false, R true

Explanation:

Assertion is true; mycorrhizae improve phosphorus absorption. Reason is false; fungi do not fix nitrogen from air. Hence, fungi enhance nutrient uptake via hyphal extension, not nitrogen fixation. (Answer: C)

8) Matching Type MCQ:

Match fungal types with characteristics:

1. Ectomycorrhiza – (i) Penetrates root cells

2. Arbuscular mycorrhiza – (ii) Forms sheath around roots

Options:

(A) 1-ii, 2-i

(B) 1-i, 2-ii

(C) 1-ii, 2-ii

(D) 1-i, 2-i

Explanation:

Ectomycorrhiza forms sheath around roots (1-ii), whereas arbuscular mycorrhiza penetrates cortical cells forming arbuscules (2-i). Correct matching: 1-ii, 2-i. (Answer: A)

9) Fill in the Blanks MCQ:

Symbiotic association where both plant and fungus benefit is called _______.

(A) Amensalism

(B) Antibiosis

(C) Mutualism

(D) Parasitism

Explanation:

A mutually beneficial relationship is mutualism, exemplified by mycorrhizae, where plants gain nutrients and fungi obtain carbohydrates, enhancing survival of both partners. (Answer: C)

10) Choose the correct statements MCQ:

1. Mycorrhizae benefit plants by improving nutrient absorption.

2. Fungi in mycorrhizae always harm the plant.

3. Hyphal networks extend root soil contact.

4. Ectomycorrhiza penetrate root cells.

Options:

(A) 1, 3

(B) 2, 4

(C) 1, 2, 3

(D) 1, 4

Explanation:

Statements 1 and 3 are correct; mycorrhizae improve nutrient uptake and hyphae increase soil contact. Statement 2 is false; fungi are mutualistic, not harmful. Statement 4 is false; ectomycorrhiza do not penetrate cells. (Answer: A)

Topic: Fungi

Subtopic: Characteristics of Fungi

Keyword Definitions:

• Fungi: Eukaryotic organisms including yeasts, molds, and mushrooms, distinct from plants and animals.

• Eukaryotic: Organisms with cells containing a nucleus and organelles.

• Cell Wall: Structural layer outside the cell membrane; in fungi, mainly composed of chitin.

• Heterotrophic: Organisms that obtain food by consuming organic matter.

• Unicellular and Multicellular: Some fungi exist as single cells (yeasts), while others (mushrooms) are multicellular.

Lead Question - 2016 (Phase 2):

Which one of the following is wrong for fungi?

(1) They are both unicellular and multicellular

(2) They are eukaryotic

(3) All fungi possess a purely cellulosic cell wall

(4) They are heterotrophic

Explanation: The correct answer is (3) All fungi possess a purely cellulosic cell wall. This is incorrect because fungal cell walls are composed primarily of chitin, not cellulose. This distinction separates fungi from plants and is key in mycology and clinical mycoses treatment.

1. Single Correct Answer MCQ:

Fungal cell walls are primarily made up of:

(1) Cellulose

(2) Chitin

(3) Lignin

(4) Peptidoglycan

Explanation: The correct answer is (2) Chitin. Fungal cell walls consist mainly of chitin, a polysaccharide that provides structural strength, distinguishing fungi from plants which have cellulose-based walls.

2. Single Correct Answer MCQ:

Which of the following is unicellular fungi?

(1) Mushrooms

(2) Molds

(3) Yeasts

(4) Puffballs

Explanation: The correct answer is (3) Yeasts. Yeasts are unicellular fungi used in baking and fermentation processes. They reproduce by budding and play roles in biotechnology and clinical infections.

3. Single Correct Answer MCQ:

Fungi obtain nutrition by:

(1) Photosynthesis

(2) Autotrophic absorption

(3) Heterotrophic absorption

(4) Chemosynthesis

Explanation: The correct answer is (3) Heterotrophic absorption. Fungi secrete digestive enzymes externally to break down organic material and absorb nutrients, unlike plants which are autotrophic via photosynthesis.

4. Single Correct Answer MCQ:

Which fungal infection affects the skin?

(1) Aspergillosis

(2) Athlete’s foot

(3) Histoplasmosis

(4) Candidemia

Explanation: The correct answer is (2) Athlete’s foot. Caused by dermatophyte fungi, Athlete’s foot results in itchy, scaly skin, often in moist areas. Treatment involves antifungal creams and hygiene management.

5. Single Correct Answer MCQ (Clinical Type):

Which fungus causes systemic infection in immunocompromised patients?

(1) Penicillium

(2) Candida albicans

(3) Saccharomyces cerevisiae

(4) Rhizopus

Explanation: The correct answer is (2) Candida albicans. It causes candidemia and systemic infections, particularly in immunocompromised individuals, requiring antifungal therapy such as fluconazole or amphotericin B.

6. Single Correct Answer MCQ:

Which structure in fungi is responsible for reproduction?

(1) Hyphae

(2) Mycelium

(3) Spore

(4) Cell wall

Explanation: The correct answer is (3) Spore. Fungi reproduce by releasing spores, which are highly resistant and can germinate into new organisms under favorable conditions, critical for propagation and survival.

7. Assertion-Reason MCQ:

Assertion (A): All fungi are heterotrophic.

Reason (R): Fungi do not possess chlorophyll.

(1) Both A and R are true, and R is the correct explanation of A.

(2) Both A and R are true, but R is not the correct explanation of A.

(3) A is true, but R is false.

(4) Both A and R are false.

Explanation: The correct answer is (1) Both A and R are true, and R is the correct explanation of A. Fungi lack chlorophyll and cannot photosynthesize, so they rely on external organic matter for nutrients, making them heterotrophic.

8. Matching Type MCQ:

Match the organism to its type:

A. Yeast

B. Mushroom

C. Aspergillus

D. Candida albicans

1. Unicellular fungus

2. Multicellular reproductive structure

3. Mold

4. Opportunistic pathogen

(1) A-1, B-2, C-3, D-4

(2) A-2, B-1, C-3, D-4

(3) A-3, B-2, C-4, D-1

(4) A-1, B-3, C-2, D-4

Explanation: The correct answer is (1) A-1, B-2, C-3, D-4. Yeast is unicellular; Mushroom is a multicellular reproductive body; Aspergillus is a mold; Candida albicans is an opportunistic human pathogen.

9. Fill in the Blanks MCQ:

Fungi are ______ organisms.

(1) Autotrophic

(2) Heterotrophic

(3) Photosynthetic

(4) Chemosynthetic

Explanation: The correct answer is (2) Heterotrophic. Fungi secrete enzymes to decompose and absorb organic matter, essential for nutrient recycling and ecological balance.

10. Choose the correct statements MCQ:

Select correct statements about fungi:

(1) Fungi have chitin in their cell walls.

(2) All fungi are multicellular.

(3) Yeast is a unicellular fungus.

(4) Fungi perform photosynthesis.

(1) 1 and 3 only

(2) 1, 2, and 4 only

(3) 2 and 4 only

(4) All of the above

Explanation: The correct answer is (1) 1 and 3 only. Fungal cell walls contain chitin, and yeast is unicellular. Not all fungi are multicellular, and none are photosynthetic, differentiating them from plants.

Keywords:

• Cyanobacteria: Photosynthetic prokaryotes, also called blue-green algae; contain chlorophyll and can fix nitrogen.

• Golden algae: Protists with golden-brown chloroplasts, sometimes called desmids.

• Eubacteria: True bacteria with peptidoglycan cell walls; not “false bacteria.”

• Phycomycetes: Lower fungi, filamentous, sometimes called algal fungi due to moist habitat and coenocytic hyphae.

• Prokaryote: Organisms without a true nucleus, e.g., bacteria and cyanobacteria.

• Algae: Photosynthetic eukaryotes, aquatic, can be unicellular or multicellular.

• Fungi: Non-photosynthetic eukaryotes; absorb nutrients from organic matter.

• Coenocytic: Multinucleate hyphae without septa.

• Photosynthesis: Process of converting light energy into chemical energy using chlorophyll.

• Protists: Eukaryotic microorganisms, often aquatic, include algae, protozoa, and slime molds.

• False bacteria: Outdated term for certain bacteria-like organisms; eubacteria are true bacteria.

Chapter: Microbiology

Topic: Algae and Lower Fungi

Subtopic: Classification and Characteristics

Lead Question - 2016 (Phase 1): Which one of the following statements is wrong?

(1) Cyanobacteria are also called blue-green algae
(2) Golden algae are also called desmids
(3) Eubacteria are also called false bacteria
(4) Phycomycetes are also called algal fungi

Answer: 3

Explanation: Eubacteria are true bacteria with peptidoglycan cell walls; calling them “false bacteria” is incorrect. Cyanobacteria are blue-green algae, Golden algae include desmids, and Phycomycetes are lower fungi often called algal fungi due to their moist habitat and coenocytic hyphae.

1. Single Correct Answer MCQ: Cyanobacteria can perform:

(A) Photosynthesis and nitrogen fixation
(B) Photosynthesis only
(C) Fermentation
(D) Spore formation

Answer: A

Explanation: Cyanobacteria are prokaryotic, photosynthetic organisms capable of nitrogen fixation using specialized cells called heterocysts, making them ecologically significant in aquatic ecosystems and soils.

2. Single Correct Answer MCQ: Desmids belong to:

(A) Cyanobacteria
(B) Golden algae
(C) Phycomycetes
(D) Eubacteria

Answer: B

Explanation: Desmids are a group of unicellular, green or golden-brown algae, often included in golden algae, inhabiting freshwater and performing photosynthesis.

3. Single Correct Answer MCQ: Phycomycetes are characterized by:

(A) Coenocytic hyphae and moist habitat
(B) Septate hyphae
(C) Photosynthetic pigments
(D) Cell wall of cellulose only

Answer: A

Explanation: Phycomycetes are lower fungi with coenocytic (aseptate) hyphae, often aquatic or in moist soil, non-photosynthetic, and sometimes referred to as algal fungi.

4. Single Correct Answer MCQ: Which of the following is true for eubacteria?

(A) Lack peptidoglycan
(B) Are true bacteria with peptidoglycan cell walls
(C) Are photosynthetic only
(D) Are fungi

Answer: B

Explanation: Eubacteria are true bacteria, possess peptidoglycan in their cell walls, reproduce by binary fission, and can be heterotrophic, autotrophic, or photosynthetic.

5. Single Correct Answer MCQ: Coenocytic hyphae means:

(A) Hyphae with septa
(B) Hyphae with multiple nuclei without septa
(C) Single nucleus per cell
(D) Hyphae performing photosynthesis

Answer: B

Explanation: Coenocytic hyphae are multinucleate filaments without cross walls, found in Phycomycetes, allowing rapid cytoplasmic streaming and growth.

6. Single Correct Answer MCQ: Cyanobacteria are classified as:

(A) True bacteria (prokaryotes)
(B) Fungi
(C) Eukaryotic algae
(D) Protozoa

Answer: A

Explanation: Cyanobacteria are prokaryotic organisms without a true nucleus, capable of photosynthesis and nitrogen fixation, often called blue-green algae due to pigment composition.

7. Assertion-Reason MCQ:
Assertion (A): Phycomycetes are sometimes called algal fungi.
Reason (R): They grow in moist habitats and have coenocytic hyphae.

(A) Both A and R are true, R is correct explanation of A
(B) Both A and R are true, R is NOT correct explanation of A
(C) A is true, R is false
(D) A is false, R is true

Answer: A

Explanation: Phycomycetes are lower fungi found in moist habitats. Their coenocytic hyphae resemble algal filaments, hence the term “algal fungi”.

8. Matching Type MCQ: Match organism with classification:

1. Cyanobacteria   A. Eukaryotic algae
2. Phycomycetes   B. Lower fungi
3. Eubacteria   C. True bacteria
4. Golden algae   D. Protists

(A) 1-D, 2-B, 3-C, 4-A
(B) 1-C, 2-B, 3-D, 4-A
(C) 1-C, 2-A, 3-B, 4-D
(D) 1-D, 2-A, 3-C, 4-B

Answer: A

Explanation: Cyanobacteria are prokaryotic protists, Phycomycetes are lower fungi, Eubacteria are true bacteria, and golden algae are eukaryotic protists performing photosynthesis.

9. Fill in the Blanks: _______ are prokaryotic photosynthetic organisms, while _______ are lower fungi with coenocytic hyphae.

(A) Cyanobacteria; Phycomycetes
(B) Eubacteria; Golden algae
(C) Golden algae; Cyanobacteria
(D) Phycomycetes; Eubacteria

Answer: A

Explanation: Cyanobacteria are prokaryotic, photosynthetic organisms (blue-green algae). Phycomycetes are lower fungi with coenocytic hyphae, non-photosynthetic, inhabiting moist environments.

10. Choose the Correct Statements: Identify true statements:

(A) Cyanobacteria are blue-green algae.
(B) Eubacteria are false bacteria.
(C) Phycomycetes are algal fungi.
(D) Golden algae are protists.

(1) A, B, C
(2) A, C, D
(3) B, C, D
(4) A, D

Answer: 2

Explanation: Cyanobacteria are blue-green algae (A), Phycomycetes are algal fungi (C), and golden algae are protists (D). Statement B is incorrect because eubacteria are true bacteria.

Keywords:

• Gynoecium: The female reproductive part of a flower consisting of carpels.

• Carpel: The basic unit of gynoecium, containing ovary, style, and stigma.

• Syncarpous: Gynoecium with two or more carpels fused together.

• Tricarpellary: Composed of three carpels.

• Liliaceae: Monocot family with flowers often having trimerous symmetry.

• Solanaceae: Dicot family including tomato, potato, mostly with syncarpous ovary.

• Fabaceae: Legume family with papilionaceous flowers.

• Poaceae: Grass family, generally with monocarpellary ovary.

• Ovary: Part of carpel containing ovules.

• Clinical relevance: Understanding floral structures aids in taxonomy, plant breeding, and pharmacognosy.

• Floral morphology: Study of flower structure and arrangement of reproductive parts.

Chapter: Angiosperm Morphology

Topic: Gynoecium Structure

Subtopic: Syncarpous and Apocarpous Flowers

Lead Question - 2016 (Phase 1): Tricarpellary, syncarpous gynoecium is found in flowers of:

(1) Liliaceae
(2) Solanaceae
(3) Fabaceae
(4) Poaceae

Answer: 2

Explanation: Solanaceae flowers typically have a tricarpellary, syncarpous ovary, meaning three carpels are fused. Liliaceae are monocots with trimerous flowers, Fabaceae have papilionaceous flowers, and Poaceae are mostly monocarpellary. Syncarpy ensures proper fertilization and development of fruits like tomato and brinjal.

1. Single Correct Answer MCQ: The fusion of carpels in a flower is called:

(A) Apocarpy
(B) Syncarpy
(C) Polycarpy
(D) Monocarpy

Answer: B

Explanation: Syncarpy refers to the fusion of two or more carpels in a flower, forming a compound ovary, which is essential for coordinated development of ovules and fruit formation.

2. Single Correct Answer MCQ: A monocarpellary ovary is characteristic of which family?

(A) Poaceae
(B) Solanaceae
(C) Fabaceae
(D) Liliaceae

Answer: A

Explanation: Poaceae (grasses) have a single carpel forming the ovary. This simple ovary structure contrasts with tricarpellary, syncarpous gynoecium found in Solanaceae.

3. Single Correct Answer MCQ: The gynoecium of tomato is:

(A) Monocarpellary
(B) Tricarpellary syncarpous
(C) Tricarpellary apocarpous
(D) Bicarpellary syncarpous

Answer: B

Explanation: Tomato belongs to Solanaceae with a tricarpellary, syncarpous ovary, where three carpels fuse to form a single compound ovary enclosing ovules.

4. Single Correct Answer MCQ: Fusion of carpels ensures:

(A) Independent ovule development
(B) Coordinated fertilization and fruit formation
(C) Reduced ovule number
(D) Dispersal of seeds by wind

Answer: B

Explanation: Syncarpy allows carpels to form a single ovary, ensuring coordinated fertilization, proper seed arrangement, and development of a uniform fruit structure.

5. Single Correct Answer MCQ: Number of carpels in a typical Solanaceae flower is:

(A) 1
(B) 2
(C) 3
(D) 4

Answer: C

Explanation: Solanaceae flowers are usually tricarpellary, with three carpels fused into a syncarpous ovary, forming fruit structures like capsules in brinjal or tomato.

6. Single Correct Answer MCQ: Fabaceae flowers have gynoecium type:

(A) Tricarpellary syncarpous
(B) Bicarpellary syncarpous
(C) Monocarpellary
(D) Tricarpellary apocarpous

Answer: C

Explanation: Fabaceae flowers generally have a monocarpellary ovary enclosed within the keel, as in peas and beans, contrasting with tricarpellary, syncarpous ovary of Solanaceae.

7. Assertion-Reason MCQ:
Assertion (A): Syncarpous ovary ensures proper seed arrangement.
Reason (R): Fusion of carpels forms a single compound ovary with coordinated ovule development.

(A) Both A and R are true, R is correct explanation of A
(B) Both A and R are true, R is NOT correct explanation of A
(C) A is true, R is false
(D) A is false, R is true

Answer: A

Explanation: The fusion of carpels in a syncarpous ovary ensures uniform ovule arrangement and coordinated fertilization, facilitating the development of a well-formed fruit.

8. Matching Type MCQ: Match families with their gynoecium type:

1. Solanaceae   A. Monocarpellary
2. Poaceae   B. Tricarpellary syncarpous
3. Fabaceae   C. Monocarpellary
4. Liliaceae   D. Tricarpellary syncarpous

(A) 1-B, 2-A, 3-C, 4-D
(B) 1-A, 2-B, 3-C, 4-D
(C) 1-B, 2-C, 3-A, 4-D
(D) 1-D, 2-A, 3-B, 4-C

Answer: A

Explanation: Solanaceae: tricarpellary syncarpous; Poaceae: monocarpellary; Fabaceae: monocarpellary; Liliaceae: tricarpellary syncarpous. These structural differences help in classification and fruit development studies.

9. Fill in the Blanks: A flower with three fused carpels forming a single ovary has a _______ gynoecium which is _______.

(A) Tricarpellary; Syncarpous
(B) Bicarpellary; Apocarpous
(C) Monocarpellary; Syncarpous
(D) Tricarpellary; Apocarpous

Answer: A

Explanation: Tricarpellary refers to three carpels, and syncarpous indicates that these carpels are fused, forming a single compound ovary as seen in Solanaceae flowers.

10. Passage-based MCQ:
Passage: A botanist observes a flower with three carpels fused into a single ovary. The ovules are arranged in locules within the ovary. Fruits like tomato and brinjal develop from such flowers.
Question: The gynoecium type of this flower is:

(A) Monocarpellary
(B) Tricarpellary syncarpous
(C) Tricarpellary apocarpous
(D) Bicarpellary syncarpous

Answer: B

Explanation: The passage describes a tricarpellary, syncarpous gynoecium, where three carpels are fused forming a single ovary, as observed in Solanaceae, facilitating coordinated fruit and seed development.